Brief History of ancient Egypt: Egypt,is located on the Northeast tip of Africa, is one of the most fascinating, enchanting countries in the world. Egypt is one of the earliest civilizations in the world. The Egyptian Civilization was born on the banks of Nile River in 3150 B.C., when the upper and lower kingdoms of Egypt were unified under the first Pharaoh. The civilization prospered for the next three millenniums until it ended in 31 B.C, when it was conquered by the powerful empire of Rome. The Egyptians were intelligent people who made inventions in almost every field of life, which made them one of the longest surviving civilizations. Ancient Egyptian inventions, although we usually associate the Egyptian Civilization with mummies and the pyramids, have an outstanding, tremendous impact on current society. They made a number of inventions that made them one of the greatest civilizations ever. Some of their inventions are as follows: Papyrus- We owe the invention of paper to the Egyptian papyrus or the Egyptian paper. The Egyptians made paper from the Cyperus papyrus plant that grows along the banks of river Nile. As early as 3000 B.C, the Egyptians had developed the technique of using papyrus to make paper, mats, baskets, ropes and sandals. The pith of the plant was taken out and cut into long strips. These strips were placed crosswise on each other and the sheet was put under weight for a couple of days so that the strips would bind with each other. The quality of papyrus paper is evident from the fact that they are still intact about 5,000 years after they were written on. Black Ink- Perhaps one of the most under-appreciated, unrecognized gifts of Ancient Egypt is blank ink. To make it, the Egyptians mixed soot with vegetable gum and bee wax. They substituted soot with other organic material to make ink of different colors. For example, they used ochre in place of soot to make red ink. The durability and longevity of their ink speaks to the fine quality it possessed; manuscripts written in Egyptian ink centuries back are still clear and legible. The Ox-drawn Plow- The Ox-drawn plow was an invention that not only revolutionized the way agriculture was carried on in the Egyptian communities, but a modified version of it is still used by farmers of smaller countries who cannot afford machines to plow their fields. Using the power of oxen to pull the plow made loosening the soil much easier and faster than doing it with hands or using human beings to pull the plow. Clocks- The Egyptians taught the world to tell time by inventing the clock. They invented two types of clocks: the sun clock and the water clock. The sun clocks were obelisks whose moving shadow throughout the day helped the early Egyptians to divide the day into morning and afternoon. The Egyptians also determined the longest and the shortest day of the year by noting the days when the shadow of the obelisk was the longest and shortest at the noon. The Egyptians also invented the water clock as early 1417-1379 B.C., during the reign of Amenhotep III, that let them read time at night. The water clock was a stone vessel with slanting sides and a small hole at the bottom through which water would drip at a constant rate. The changing level of water along the arkings on the inner walls of the vessel, as it dropped out of the vessel, would indicate the passage of each hour. Both functions of these clocks show the extreme intuitiveness and mathematical skill possessed by the Egyptians. Their ability to understand the advance relationships of the intricate world around them was far ahead of their time. The Sun Calendar- Ancient civilizations marked time using the lunar calendars.

The Egyptians were the first to have established a solar calendar consisting of twelve months, each of which had 30 days plus 5 extra days at the end of the year. They made the first leap year calendar in 238 B.C. and added an extra day every fourth year. The Pyramids- The word “pyramids” have become synonymous with the tombs of the Egyptian Pharaohs. From structures in ancient Greece to the Louvre in Paris, France, pyramids have been used throughout history by man to build temples, tombs and museums. However, the world got its first pyramid in the form of the Step Pyramid at Saqqara that was built in 2750 B.C. for King Zoser of the third dynasty of Egyptian kings. Before this the Egyptian kings would be buried in rectangular mud-brick tomb called a Mastaba. However, King Zoser's architect Imhotep placed a number of mastabas of decreasing size one on top of the other to make the world's first pyramid. As historians and archaeologists delved deeper into understanding this ancient civilization, the ancient Egyptians stunned the world with their ingenuity. With the achievements they made in the fields of science as well as architecture, the Egyptians could be called the forerunner to the present day technologies. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the most remarkable building in existence on the face of our planet to date. And now here are some mind bugling facts about the great pyramid of Giza, The pyramid is estimated to have about 2,300,000 stone blocks weighing from 2-30 Tons each with some weighing as much as 70 tons. There is so much stone mass in the pyramid that the interior temperature is constant and equals the average temperature of the earth, 20 Degrees Celsius (68 Degrees Fahrenheit). Two types of limestone were used for construction. A soft limestone either pure or nummulitic was used for the bulk of the core blocks and a hard white limestone for the mantle. Hard limestone becomes more polished with age. The base of the pyramid covers 55,000m2 (592,000 ft2) with each side greater than 20,000m2 (218,000 ft2) in area. The outer mantle was composed of 144,000 casing stones, all highly polished and flat to an accuracy of 1/100th of an inch, about 100 inches thick and weighing about 15 tons each. The average casing stone on the lowest level was 5 ft. long by 5 ft. high by 6 ft. deep and weighed 15 tons. The mortar used is of an unknown origin. It has been analyzed and its chemical composition is known but it can't be reproduced. It is stronger than the stone and still holding up today.

The cornerstone foundations of the pyramid have ball and socket construction capable of dealing with heat expansion and earthquakes. There are no hieroglyphics or writing in the Great Pyramid. With the mantle in place, the Great Pyramid could be seen from the mountains in Israel and probably the moon as well. Its polished surfaces would have reflected light like a beacon. Aligned True North: The Great Pyramid is the most accurately aligned structure in existence and faces true north with only 3/60th of a degree of error. The position of the North Pole moves over time and the pyramid was exactly aligned at one time. Centre of Land Mass: The Great Pyramid is located at the centre of the land mass of the earth. The east/west parallel that crosses the most land and the north/south meridian that crosses the most land intersect in two places on the earth, one in the ocean and the other at the Great Pyramid. While being the oldest structure on the face of the earth, the Great Pyramid is the most accurately oriented, being laid out almost exactly due north, south, east, and west. Modern man's best effort, the Paris Observatory, is six minutes of a degree off true north.

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